'Aceh' (
IPA pronunciation: , pronounced approximately ''Ah-Cèh'', but with [e], not [ei] at the end) is a
special territory (''daerah istimewa'') of
Indonesia, located on the northern tip of the island of
Sumatra. Its full name is 'Nanggröe Aceh Darussalam'. Past spellings of its name include ''Acheh'', ''Atjeh'' and ''Achin''.
It is thought to have been in Aceh where
Islam was first established in Southeast Asia. In the early seventeenth century the Sultanate of Aceh was the most wealthy, powerful and cultivated state in the
Malacca Straits region. Aceh has a history of political
independence and fierce resistance to control by outsiders, including the former
Dutch colonists and the Indonesian government. Aceh has substantial
natural resources, including
oil and
gas - some estimates put Aceh gas reserves as being the largest in the world. Relative to most of Indonesia, it is a
religiously
conservative area.
Aceh was the closest point of land to the
epicenter of the massive
2004 Indian Ocean earthquake, which triggered a
tsunami that devastated much of the western coast of the region, including part of the capital of
Banda Aceh. 167,736 Indonesians, the overwhelming majority in Aceh, were killed or missing and 500,000 made homeless.
[3] This event helped trigger the
peace agreement between the government of Indonesia and the
Free Aceh Movement (GAM), mediated by former
Finnish president
Martti Ahtisaari, with the signing of a
MoU on
August 15, 2005. With the assistance of the
European Union through the
Aceh monitoring mission as of December
2005, the peace has held.
History
The beginnings of Islam in Southeast Asia
Evidence concerning the initial coming and subsequent establishment of Islam is thin and inconclusive, however, it is thought that it was through the Aceh region. When
Venetian traveller
Marco Polo passed by Sumatra on his way home from
China in 1292 he found that
Perlak was a Muslim town while nearby '
Basma(n)' and 'Samara' were not. 'Basma(n)' and 'Samara' are often said to be
Pasai and
Samudra (present-day
Syamtalira) but evidence is inconclusive. The gravestone of Sultan Malik as-Salih, the first Muslim ruler of Samudra, has been found and is dated AH 696 (AD 1297). This is the earliest clear evidence of a Muslim dynasty in the Indonesia-Malay area and more gravestones from the thirteenth century show that this region continued under Muslim rule.
Ibn Batutah, a
Moroccan traveller, passing through on his way to China in 1345 and 1346, found that the ruler of Samudra was a follower of the
Shafi’i school of Islam.
[4]
The
Portuguese apothecary
Tome Pires reported in his early sixteenth century book ''Suma Oriental'' that most of the kings of Sumatra from Aceh through to
Palembang were Muslim. At
Pasai, in what is now the
North Aceh Regency, there was a thriving international port. Pires attributed the establishment of Islam in Pasai to the 'cunning' of the Muslim merchants. The ruler of Pasai, however, had not been able to convert the people of the people of the interior.
[5]
Sultanate of Aceh
Main articles: Sultanate of Aceh
The
Sultanate of Aceh was established initially as a small
Islamic kingdom in what is today
Banda Aceh during the
15th century AD. During its golden era, its territory and political influence expanded as far as Satun in southern
Thailand,
Johor in
Malay Peninsula, and Siak in what is today
Riau province. As was the case with most non-Javan pre-colonial states, Acehnese power expanded outward by sea rather than focus inland. As it expanded down the Sumatran coast, it was not another Sumatran state, but
Johor and
Portuguese Malacca on the other side of the
Straits of Malacca that were to become its main competitors. It was this seaborne trade focus that saw Aceh rely on rice imports from north Java rather than develop self sufficiency in rice production.
[6]
In the tomb of Ratu Acheh, a tombstone dated 1380, engraved with the wording, "Gusta barubasa empu Kedah Pasai Ma", meaning the families who embraced Islam governs Kedah and Pasai. This is so because Acheh is part of the Main Kingdom of 'Raja Siam (Müsli) Beruas Melayu Tua Gangga, Negara Kedah Pasai Ma' Empire whom appointed Sultans from its siblings to rule its territory and waters. Rulers of this Empire is known as 'Shyah Alam Yang Maha Mulia', descendants from the Persians and Siamese Muslim Empire.
[7][8]
Because of the
Portuguese occupation of
Malacca in 1511, many Islamic traders passing Malacca straits shift their trade to Banda Aceh and increases wealth of Acehnese rulers. During the reign of
Sultan Iskandar Muda in 17th century, Aceh influence extended to most of
Sumatra and
Malay Peninsula. Aceh allied itself with the
Ottoman Empire and the
Dutch East India Company in their struggle against the Portuguese and the
Johor Sultanate. Aceh military power waned gradually thereafter, and Aceh was separated from its territory of
Kedah and
Pinang on the Malay Peninsula to the British, and
Pariaman in Sumatra to the Dutch in 18th century.
[9]
By the early nineteenth century, however, Aceh had become an increasingly influential power due to its strategic location for controlling regional trade. In the
1820s it was the producer of over half the world's supply of
black pepper. The pepper trade produced new wealth for the sultanate, but also for the rulers of many smaller nearby ports that had been under Aceh's control, but were now able to assert more
independence. These changes initially threatened Aceh's integrity, but a new sultan
Tuanku Ibrahim, who controlled the kingdom from
1838 to
1870, aggressively, and successfully, reasserted power over nearby ports.
[10]
Under the
Anglo-Dutch Treaty of 1824 the British ceded their colonial possessions on Sumatra to the Dutch. In the treaty, the British described Aceh as one of their possessions, although they had no actual control over the sultanate. Initially, under the agreement the Dutch agreed to respect Aceh's independence. In
1871, however, the British dropped previous opposition to a Dutch invasion of Aceh, possibly to prevent
France or the
United States from gaining a foothold in the region. Although neither the Dutch nor the British knew the specifics, there had been rumors since the
1850s that Aceh had been in communication with rulers of
France and of the
Ottoman Empire.
The Aceh War
The Dutch colonial government
declared war on Aceh on
26 March 1873; the apparent immediate trigger for their invasion was discussions between representatives of Aceh and the U.S. in
Singapore during early
1873.
An expedition under Major General Köhler was sent out in
1874, which was able to occupy most of the coastal areas. It was the intention of the Dutch to attack and take the Sultan's palace, which would also lead to the occupation of the entire country. The Sultan requested and possibly received military aid from
Italy and the
United Kingdom in Singapore: in any case the Aceh army was rapidly modernized, and Aceh soldiers managed to kill Köhler (a monument of this achievement has been built inside Grand Mosque of Banda Aceh). Köhler made some grave tactical errors and the reputation of the Dutch was severely harmed.
A second expedition led by General Van Swieten managed to capture the ''
kraton'' (sultan's
palace): the Sultan had however been warned, and had escaped capture. Intermittent
guerrilla warfare continued in the region for ten years, with many victims on both sides. Around
1880 the Dutch strategy changed, and rather than continuing the war, they now concentrated on defending areas they already controlled, which were mostly limited to the capital city (modern
Banda Aceh), and the
harbour town of Ulee Lheue. On
13 October 1880 the colonial government declared the war as over, but continued spending heavily to maintain control over the areas it occupied.
War began again in
1883, when the British ship ''Nisero'' was stranded in Aceh, in an area where the Dutch had little influence. A local leader asked for
ransom from both the Dutch and the British, and under British pressure the Dutch were forced to attempt to liberate the sailors. After a failed Dutch attempt to rescue the
hostages, where the local leader
Teuku Umar was asked for help but he refused, the Dutch together with the British invaded the territory. The Sultan gave up the hostages, and received a large amount in cash in exchange.
The Dutch Minister of Warfare
Weitzel now again declared open war on Aceh, and warfare continued, with little success, as before. The Dutch now also tried to enlist local leaders: the aforementioned Umar was bought with cash,
opium, and weapons. Umar received the title ''panglima prang besar'' (upper
warlord of the government).
An Aceh fort after capture by the Dutch in a 1901 photograph
Umar called himself rather ''Teuku Djohan Pahlawan'' (Johan the heroic). On
1 January 1894 Umar even received Dutch aid to build an army. However, two years later Umar attacked the Dutch with his new army, rather than aiding the Dutch in subjugating inner Aceh. This is recorded in Dutch history as "Het verraad van Teukoe Oemar" (the
treason of Teuku Umar).
In
1892 and
1893 Aceh remained independent, despite the Dutch efforts. Major
J.B. van Heutsz, a colonial military leader, then wrote a series of articles on Aceh. He was supported by Dr
Snouck Hurgronje of the
University of Leiden, then the leading Dutch expert on Islam. Hurgronje managed to get the confidence of many Aceh leaders and gathered valuable
intelligence for the Dutch government. His works remained an official secret for many years. In Hurgronje's analysis of Acehnese society, he minimised the role of the Sultan and argued that attention should be paid to the hereditary chiefs, the ''Ulee Balang'', who he felt could be trusted as local administrators. However, he argued, Aceh's religious leaders, the
ulema, could not be trusted or persuaded to cooperate, and must be destroyed.
This advice was followed: in
1898 Van Heutsz was proclaimed
governor of Aceh, and with his lieutenant, later
Dutch Prime Minister Hendrikus Colijn, would finally conquer most of Aceh. They followed Hurgronje's suggestions, finding cooperative ''uleebelang'' that would support them in the countryside. Van Heutsz charged Colonel
Van Daalen with breaking remaining resistance.
Van Daalen destroyed several villages, killing at least 2,900 Acehnese, among which were 1,150 women and children. Dutch losses numbered just 26, and Van Daalen was promoted.
The letters which Colijn wrote at the time to his wife make no effort to hide the atrocities in which he was personally involved:
" I have seen a mother carrying a child of about 6 months old on her left arm, with a long lance in her right hand, who was running in our direction. One of our bullets killed the mother as well as the child. From now on we couldn't give any mercy, it was over. I did give orders to gather a group of 9 women and 3 children who asked for mercy and they were shot all together. It was not a pleasant job, but something else was impossible. Our soldiers tacked them with pleasure with their bayonets. It was horrible. I will stop reporting now."[11]
Colijn's wife wrote in the margin : " How terrible !!"
By
1904 most of Aceh was under Dutch control, and had an indigenous government that cooperated with the colonial state. Estimated total casualties on the Aceh side range from 50,000 to 100,000 dead, and over a million wounded.
In the Netherlands at the time, van Heutsz was considered a hero, named the 'Pacificator of Aceh' and was promoted to become governor-general of the entire
Dutch Indies in
1904. A still-existent statue of him was erected in central
Amsterdam.
Colonial influence in the remote
highland areas of Aceh was never substantial, however, and limited
guerrilla resistance remained. Led mostly by the religious
ulema, intermittent fighting continued until about
1910, and parts of the province were still not pacified when the Dutch Indies became independent
Indonesia following the end of the Japanese occupation of Indonesia.
Japanese Occupation
During World War II, Japanese troops occupied Aceh. Religious ulema party gained ascendancy to replace district warlords (uleebalang) party formerly collaborating with the Dutch. Concrete bunkers still line the northern-most beaches.
Indonesian Independence
After World War II, civil war erupted in 1945 between district warlords party, supporting the return of Dutch government and religious ulema party, supporting newly proclaimed Indonesia State. The latter party won, and the area remained free during Indonesian War of Independence. The Dutch military itself never attempt to invade Aceh. The civil war put the religious ulema party leader,
Daud Bereueh, as Military Governor of Aceh.
[12][13]
Islamic Rebellion
After the transfer of authority from Dutch Government to Indonesian State in 1949, Aceh was amalgamated with nearby province of North Sumatra, leading to resentment from many Acehnese due to many ethnic-differences between themselves and the mostly Christian
Batak people who dominate North Sumatra. This Resentment resulted in a rebellion in 1953, under the banner of Islamic State ((
Darul Islam), led by Daud Bereueh. Putting down the rebellion took years to complete. In
1959 the Indonesian government yielded in part and gave Aceh a "special territory" (''daerah istimewa'') status, giving it a greater degree of from the central government in Jakarta than most other regions of Indonesia have. For example, the regional government is empowered to construct a legal system independent of the national government. In
2003, a form of ''
sharia'', or Islamic law, was formally introduced in Aceh.
[2]. In 1963, Daud Bereueh signed a peace agreement, marking the end of Islamic Rebellion.
Free Aceh Movement
During 1970s, under agreement with Indonesian central government, American oil and gas companies began exploitation of Aceh natural resources. Alleged unequal distribution of profit between central government and native people of Aceh induced
Hasan di Tiro, former ambassador of Darul Islam,
to call for Independent Aceh. He proclaimed Aceh Independence in 1976.
The movement had a small number of followers initially, and Hasan di Tiro himself had to live in exile in Sweden. Meanwhile, the province followed
Suharto's policy of economic development and industrialization. During late 80s several security incidents prompted the Indonesian central government to take repressive measures and to send troops to Aceh. Human rights abuse was rampant for the next decade, resulting in many grievances on the part of the Acehnese toward the Indonesian central government.
During late 90s, chaos in Java and an ineffective central government gave an advantage to Free Aceh Movement and resulted in the second phase of the rebellion, this time with large support from the Acehnese people. This support was demonstrated during the 2000
plebiscite in Banda Aceh which was attended by nearly half million people (of four million population of the province). Indonesian central government responded in 2001 by broadening Aceh's autonomy by giving its government the right to apply sharia law more broadly and the right to receive direct foreign investment. This was again accompanied by repressive measures, however and in 2003
Military Emergency Condition was proclaimed in the Province. The war was still going on when the Tsunami Disaster of 2004 struck the province.
Tsunami disaster
The aftermath of tsunami in Aceh
The western coastal areas of Aceh, including the cities of
Banda Aceh, Calang, and
Meulaboh, were among the areas hardest-hit by the
tsunami resulting from the
Indian Ocean earthquake on
December 26 2004. While estimates vary, approximately 230,000 people were killed by the earthquake and tsunami in Aceh, and about 500,000 were left homeless. The tragedy of the tsunami was further compounded on March 26th when a second off-shore earthquake measuring 8.7 on the Richter scale struck the sea bed between the islands of
Simeulue Island in Aceh and
Nias in North Sumatra. This second quake killed a further 905 people on Nias and Simeulue, displaced tens of thousands more and caused the tsunami response to be expanded to include Nias.
The population of Aceh before the December, 2004 tsunami was 4,271,000 (2004). The population as of 15 September 2005 was 4,031,589, almost 2% of the Indonesian population.
As of February 2006, more than a year after the tsunami, a large number of people are still living in barrack-style temporary living centers (TLC) or
tents.
Reconstruction is visible everywhere, but due to the sheer scale of the disaster, logistical issues, and the lack of funding, progress is slow.
The ramifications of the tsunami went beyond the immediate impact the lives and infrastructure of the Acehnese living on the coast. Since the disaster, the Acehnese rebel movement GAM, which had been fighting for independence against the Indonesian authorities for 29 years, has signed a peace deal (August 15th 2005). The perception that the tsunami was punishment for insufficient piety in this proudly Muslim province is partly behind the increased emphasis on the importance of religion post-tsunami. This has been most obvious in the increased implementation of
Syariah law, including the introduction of the controversial 'WH' or Syariah police. As homes are being built and people's basic needs are met, the people are also looking to improve the quality of
education, increase tourism, and develop responsible, sustainable industry. Well-qualified educators are in high demand in Aceh.
While parts of
Banda Aceh, the capital, were unscathed, the areas closest to the water, especially the areas of Kampung Jawa and Meuraxa, were completely destroyed. Most of the rest of the western coast was severely damaged, and many towns completely disappeared. Other towns on Aceh's west coast hit by the disaster include
Leupung, Lamno,
Patek,
Calang,
Teunom, and the island of
Simeulue. Affected or destroyed towns on the region's north & east coast include
Pidie Regency,
Samalanga, and
Lhokseumawe.
The area is slowly being rebuilt after the disaster. The government initially proposed the creation of a two-
kilometer buffer zone along low-lying coastal areas, within which permanent construction is not permitted. This proposal was unpopular among some local inhabitants and proved impractical in most situations, especially
fishing families that are dependent on living near to the
sea.
Indonesian government has built special agency for Aceh reconstruction, called
Badan Rehabilitasi dan Rekonstruksi (BRR/Agency of Rehabilitation and Reconstruction) headed by
Kuntoro Mangkusubroto, former Indonesian Minister. This agency has ministry level of authority and incorporating officials, professionals and community leaders from all background.
Most of the
reconstruction work is being performed by local people using a mix of traditional methods and partial prefabricated structures, with funding coming from many international organizations and individuals, governments, and the people themselves.
The peace agreement and first local elections
The 2004 tsunami helped trigger a peace agreement between the
GAM and the Indonesian government.
[3] It drew a lot of international attention to the conflict, wiped out many supplies, and killed many personnel from both sides. Earlier efforts had failed, but for a number of reasons, including the tsunami, peace prevailed in 2005 after 29 years of war. Post-
Suharto Indonesia and the liberal-democratic reform period, as well as changes in the Indonesian military, helped create an environment more favorable to peace talks. The roles of newly elected President
Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono and Vice President
Jusuf Kalla were highly significant. At the same time, the GAM leadership was undergoing changes, and the
Indonesian military had arguably inflicted so much damage on the rebel movement that it had no choice but to negotiate with the central government.
[4] The peace talks were facilitated by a
Finland-based NGO, the
Crisis Management Initiative, and led by former Finnish President
Martti Ahtisaari. The resulting peace agreement
[5] (PDF format) was signed on
August 15, 2005. Under the agreement, Aceh would receive special autonomy and government troops would be withdrawn from the province in exchange for GAM's disarmament. As part of the agreement, the
European Union dispatched 300
monitors. Their mission expired on
December 15, 2006, following local elections.
Aceh has been granted broader autonomy through Aceh Government Legislation covering special rights agreed upon in 2002 as well as the right of the Acehnese to establish local political parties to represent their interests. Human rights advocates protested that previous human rights violations in the province needed to be addressed, however.
[6]
During elections for the provincial governor held in December 2006, the former GAM and national parties participated. The election was won by
Irwandi Yusuf, whose base of support consists largely of ex-GAM members.
Administration
Within the country, Aceh is governed not as a province but as a special territory (''daerah istimewa''), an administrative designation intended to give the area increased from the central government in
Jakarta.
Administratively, the province is subdivided into 18
regencies (''kabupaten'') and 5 cities (''kota''). The capital and the largest city is
Banda Aceh, located on the coast near the northern tip of Sumatra. Some local areas are pushing to create new autonomous areas, usually with the stated goal of enhancing local control over politics and development.
Notes:
# (
★ ) is a city and also the provincial capital and (
★
★ ) is a city.
# UU is an abbreviation from Undang-Undang (
the Indonesia statute of law).
Ethnic and Cultural groups
Banda Aceh's Grand Mosque
Aceh is a diverse region occupied by several ethnic and language groups. The major ethnic groups are the
Acehnese (who are distributed throughout Aceh), Gayo (in central and eastern part), Alas (in southeastern), Tamiang (in Aceh Tamiang), Aneuk Jamee (concentrated in southern and southwestern), Kluet (in South Aceh), and Simeulue (on
Simeulue Island). There is also a significant population of
Chinese, who are influential in the business and financial communities.
Aceh is also the center of
Shi'a Islam in the country.
The
Acehnese language is widely spoken within the Acehnese population. This is a member of the
Aceh-Chamic group of languages, whose other representatives are mostly found in Vietnam and Cambodia, and is also closely related to the
Malay group of languages. Achenese has many words borrowed from Malay and
Arabic and traditionally was written using
Arabic script. Acehnese is also used as local language in Langkat and Asahan (
North Sumatra), and Kedah (Malaysia), and once dominated Penang. Alas and Kluet are closely related languages within the
Batak group. The Jamee language originated from
Minang language in
West Sumatra, with just a few variation and differences.
Aceh was once a meeting point for people from many nations, and among the present day Acehnese can be found some individuals of
Arab,
Turkish,and
Indian descent. Before the tsunami, the region of Meureuhom Daya (Lamno) used to have an unusually high number of people with fair complexions, blue eyes and blond hair, and local traditions attributed to
Turkish or Portuguese ancestry.
[7] [8] [9] [10]
Notes
1. INDONESIA: Population and Administrative Divisions
2. Indonesia's Population: Ethnicity and Religion in a Changing Political Landscape, , , , Institute of Southeast Asian Studies, 2003,
3. http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/country/humantoll.asp
4. Ricklefs (1991), page 4
5. Ricklefs (1991), page 7
6. Ricklefs (1991), page 17
7.
★ Maryam Salim, The Laws of Kedah of 812AD, Dewan Bahasa & Pustaka, Kuala Lumpur, 2005
8. Haji Ibrahim Ismail, ''A Brief History of Kedah'',Page 19, Universiti Utara Malaysia, 1987
9.
★ D. G. E. Hall, 'A History of South-east Asia'. London: Macmillan, 1955.
10. Ricklefs, M.C. (2001) ''A history of modern Indonesia since c.1200''. Stanford: Stanford University Press. p185-188.
11. Aad Engelfriet (Arcengel) "Introduction to the History of the Dutch East Indies" [1]
12.
★ M Nur El-Ibrahimy, 'Peranan Teungku M. Daud Bereueh dalam Pergolakan di Aceh'2001.
13.
★ A.H. Nasution, 'Seputar Perang Kemerdekaan Indonesia, Jilid II',1977
External links
★
Official website
★
The Acheh Times
★
Aceh.net
★ Siegel, James T. 2000. ''The rope of God''. Ann Arbor: University of Michigan Press. ISBN 0-472-08682-0
★
★ A classic
ethnographic and historical study of Aceh, and Islam in the region. Originally published in 1969
★
★ For other ethnographic accounts in English see
★
★
★ Bowen, J. R. (1991). Sumatran politics and poetics : Gayo history, 1900-1989. New Haven, Yale University Press.
★
★
★ Bowen, J. R. (2003). Islam, Law, and Equality in Indonesia Cambridge University Press
★
★
★ Iwabuchi, A. (1994). The people of the Alas Valley : a study of an ethnic group of Northern Sumatra. Oxford, England ; New York, Clarendon Press.
★
★
★ McCarthy, J. F. (2006). The Fourth Circle. A Political Ecology of Sumatra's Rainforest Frontier, Stanford University Press.
★
Aceh sample language at Language Museum
★
Aceh Institute
★
Serambi Online
★
Media Center Aceh
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