'' (
September 15 973 in Kath,
Khwarezm –
December 13 1048 in
Ghazni) was a
Persian[Rahman Habib, ''A Chronology of Islamic History, 570-1000 CE'', Mansell Publishing, p. 167:]
[1][2]
Muslim polymath[3] of the 11th century, whose
experiments and discoveries were as significant and diverse as those of
Leonardo da Vinci or
Galileo, five hundred years before the
Renaissance; al-Biruni was well-known in the
Muslim world, but unlike some of his other Muslim contemporaries (such as
Abulcasis,
Alhacen, and
Avicenna), al-Biruni's name was little known in the
Western world.
He was a
scientist and
physicist, an
anthropologist, an
astronomer and
astrologer, an
encyclopedist and
historian, a
geographer, a
geodesist and
geologist, a
mathematician, a
pharmacist and
physician, a
philosopher and
Ash'ari theologian, a
scholar and
teacher, and a
traveller, who contributed greatly to all of these fields. He was also the first Muslim scholar to study
India and the
Brahminical tradition,
[ The Canon of the Saivagama and the Kubjika Tantras of the Western Kaula Tradition, Dyczkowski, M.S.G., , , State University of New York Press, 1988, ] and has been described as the father of
Indology,
[Zafarul-Islam Khan, At The Threshhold Of A New Millennium – II, ''The Milli Gazette''.] the father of
geodesy, and "the first
anthropologist".
[ Along with Geber and Ibn al-Haytham, al-Biruni was also one of the earliest leading exponents of the experimental method,]
George Sarton, the father of the history of science, described al-Biruni as:
A. I. Sabra desribed al-Biruni as:
The Al-Biruni crater, on the Moon, is named after al-Biruni.
Biography
He was born in Khwarazm (formerly north-eastern part of the Persian Samanid dynasty) presently in Khiva, Uzbekistan. He studied mathematics and astronomy under Abu Nasr Mansur.
He was a colleague of the fellow Persian Muslim philosopher and physician Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), the historian, philosopher and ethicist Ibn Miskawayh, in a university and science center established by prince Abu al-Abbas Ma'mun Khawarazmshah. He also travelled to South Asia with Mahmud of Ghazni (whose son and successor Masud was, however, his major patron), and accompanied him on his campaigns in India (in 1030), learning Indian languages, and studying the religion and philosophy of its people. There, he also wrote his ''Ta'rikh al-Hind'' ("Chronicles of India"). Biruni wrote his books in Arabic and his native language Persian, though he knew no less than four other languages: Greek, Sanskrit, Syriac, and possibly Berber.
He was buried in Ghazni in Afganistan.
Works
An illustration from Beruni's Persian book. It shows different phases of the moon.
Biruni's works number 146 in total. These include 35 books on astronomy, 4 on astrolabes, 23 on astrology, 5 on chronology, 2 on time measurement, 9 on geography, 10 on geodesy and mapping theory, 15 on mathematics (8 on arithmetic, 5 on geometry, 2 on trigonometry), 2 on mechanics, 2 on medicine and pharmacology, 1 on meteorology, 2 on mineralogy and gems, 4 on history, 2 on India, 3 on religion and philosophy, 16 literary works, 2 books on magic, and 9 unclassified books. Among these works, only 22 have survived, and only 13 of these works have been published.[4] His extant works include:
★ ''Critical study of what India says, whether accepted by reason or refused'' (Arabic تحقيق ما للهند من مقولة معقولة في العقل أم مرذولة) - a compendium of India's religion and philosophy
★ ''The Remaining Signs of Past Centuries'' (Arabic الآثار الباقية عن القرون الخالية) - a comparative study of calendars of different cultures and civilizations, interlaced with mathematical, astronomical, and historical information.
★ ''The Mas'udi Canon'' (Persian قانون مسعودي) - an extensive encyclopedia on astronomy, geography, and engineering, named after Mas'ud, son of Mahmud of Ghazni, to whom he dedicated
★ ''Understanding Astrology'' (Arabic التفهيم لصناعة التنجيم) - a question and answer style book about mathematics and astronomy, in Arabic and Persian
★ ''Pharmacy'' - about drugs and medicines
★ ''Gems'' (Arabic الجماهر في معرفة الجواهر) about geology, minerals, and gems, dedicated to Mawdud son of Mas'ud
★ ''Astrolabe''
★ A historical summary book
★ ''History of Mahmud of Ghazni and his father''
★ ''History of Khawarazm''
Anthropology
Biruni has been described as "the first anthropologist".[Akbar S. Ahmed (1984). "Al-Beruni: The First Anthropologist", ''RAIN'' '60', p. 9-10.] He wrote detailed comparative studies on the anthropology of peoples, religions and cultures in the Middle East, Mediterranean and South Asia. Biruni's anthropology of religion was only possible for a scholar deeply immersed in the lore of other nations.[5]
Biruni has also been praised by several scholars for his Islamic anthropology.[6]
Astronomy
Instruments
In astronomy, al-Biruni invented and wrote the earliest treatises on the planisphere and the orthographical astrolabe, as well as the armillary sphere, and was able to mathematically determine the direction of the Qibla from any place in the world.[Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.][G. Wiet, V. Elisseeff, P. Wolff, J. Naudu (1975). ''History of Mankind, Vol 3: The Great medieval Civilisations'', p. 649. George Allen & Unwin Ltd, UNESCO.]
He also invented an early hodometer,[7] and the first mechanical lunisolar calendar computer which employed a gear train and eight gear-wheels.[8] These were early examples of fixed-wired knowledge processing machines.[9]
Theories
Al-Biruni was the first to conduct elaborate experiments related to astronomical phenomena. He discovered the Milky Way galaxy to be a collection of numerous nebulous stars. In Khorasan, he observed and described the solar eclipse on April 8, 1019, and the lunar eclipse on September 17, 1019, in detail, and gave the exact latitudes of the stars during the lunar eclipse.[Dr. A. Zahoor (1997), Abu Raihan Muhammad al-Biruni, Hasanuddin University.]
In 1030, Biruni discussed the Indian heliocentric theories of Aryabhata, Brahmagupta and Varahamihira in his ''Indica''. Biruni noted that the question of heliocentricity was a philosophical rather than a mathematical problem.[Saliba, George (1999). Whose Science is Arabic Science in Renaissance Europe? Columbia University.]
In 1031, al-Biruni completed his extensive astronomical encyclopaedia ''Kitab al-Qanun al-Mas'udi'' (Latinized as ''Canon Mas’udicus''),[Richard Covington (May-June 2007). "Rediscovering Arabic science", ''Saudi Aramco World'', p. 2-16.] in which he recorded his astronomical findings and formulated astronomical tables. The book introduces the mathematical technique of analysing the acceleration of the planets, and first states that the motions of the solar apogee and the precession are not identical. Al-Biruni also discovered that the distance between the Earth and the Sun is larger than Ptolemy's estimate, on the basis that Ptolemy disregarded the annual solar eclipses.[[10]]
Abu Said Sinjari, a contemporary of al-Biruni, suggested the possible heliocentric movement of the Earth around the Sun, which al-Biruni did not reject.[A. Baker and L. Chapter (2002), "Part 4: The Sciences". In M. M. Sharif, "A History of Muslim Philosophy", ''Philosophia Islamica''.] Al-Biruni agreed with the Earth's rotation about its own axis, and while he was initially neutral regarding the heliocentric and geocentric models,[Michael E. Marmura (1965). "''An Introduction to Islamic Cosmological Doctrines. Conceptions of Nature and Methods Used for Its Study by the Ikhwan Al-Safa'an, Al-Biruni, and Ibn Sina'' by Seyyed Hossein Nasr", ''Speculum'' '40' (4), p. 744-746.] he considered heliocentrism to be a philosophical problem.[ He remarked that if the Earth rotates on its axis and moves around the Sun, it would remain consistent with his astronomical parameters:]
Will Durant wrote the following on al-Biruni's contributions to astronomy:
Chemistry
Along with al-Kindi and Avicenna, al-Biruni was one of the first chemists to reject the theory of the transmuation of metals supported by some alchemists.
Earth sciences
Biruni made a number of contributions to the Earth sciences. In particular, he is regarded as the father of geodesy,[[11] and has made significant contributions to cartography, geography, and geology.]
Cartography
By the age of 22, he had written several short works, including a study of map projections, ''Cartography'', which included a method for projecting a hemisphere on a plane.
Geodesy and Geography
At the age of 17, Biruni calculated the latitude of Kath, Khwarazm, using the maximum altitude of the Sun. Biruni also solved a complex geodesic equation in order to accurately compute the Earth's circumference, which were close to modern values of the Earth's circumference.[[12] His estimate of 6,339.9 km for the Earth radius was only 16.8 km less than the modern value of 6,356.7 km.]
John J. O'Connor and Edmund F. Robertson write in the ''MacTutor History of Mathematics archive'':
Geology
Among his writings on geology, Biruni wrote the following on the geology of India:
History
Chronology
By the age of 27, in the year 1000, he had written a book called ''Chronology'' which referred to other works he had completed (now lost) that included one book about the astrolabe, one about the decimal system, four about astrology, and two about history.
He discussed more on his idea of history in another work, ''The Chronology of the Ancient Nations''.[M. S. Khan (1976). "al-Biruni and the Political History of India", ''Oriens'' '25', p. 86-115.]
Indology
Until the 10th century, history most often meant political and military history, but this was not so with Persian historian Biruni (973-1048). In his ''Kitab fi Tahqiq ma l'il-Hind'' (''Researches on India''), he did not record political and military history in any detail, but wrote more on India's cultural, scientific, social and religious history.[ Biruni is now regarded as the father of Indology.]
Mathematics
He made significant contributions to mathematics, especially in the fields of theoretical and practical arithmetic, summation of series, combinatorial analysis, the rule of three, irrational numbers, ratio theory, algebraic definitions, method of solving algebraic equations, geometry, and the development of Archimedes' theorems.
Medicine
Al-Biruni's ''Kitab-al-Saidana'' was an extensive medical encyclopedia which synthesized Islamic medicine with Indian medicine. His medical investigations included one of the earliest descriptions on Siamese twins.
Physics
Celestial mechanics
In the celestial mechanics field of physics, al-Biruni described the Earth's gravitation as:
He also discovered that gravity exists within the heavenly bodies and celestial spheres, and he criticized Aristotle's views of them not having any levity or gravity and of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies.
Dynamics and kinematics
In the dynamics and kinematics fields of mechanics, al-Biruni was the first to realize that acceleration is connected with non-uniform motion, which is part of Newton's second law of motion.
Natural philosophy
Al-Biruni and Abū Alī ibn Sīnā (Avicenna), who are regarded as two of the greatest polymaths in Persian history, were both colleagues and knew each other since the turn of the millenium. Al-Biruni later engaged in a written debate with Avicenna, with al-Biruni criticizing Aristotelian natural philosophy and the Peripatetic school, while Avicenna and his student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi respond to al-Biruni's criticisms in writing. Al-Biruni began by asking Avicenna eighteen questions, ten of which were criticisms of Aristotle's ''On the Heavens'', with his first question criticizing Aristotle's reasons for denying the existence of levity or gravity in the celestial spheres and the Aristotelian notion of circular motion being an innate property of the heavenly bodies.[Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', June 2003.]
Al-Biruni's second question criticizes Aristotle's over-reliance on more ancient views concerning the heavens, while the third criticizes the Aristotelian view that space has only six directions. The fourth question deals with the continuity and discontinuity of physical bodies, while the fifth criticizes the Peripatetic school's denial of the possibility of there existing another world completely different from the world known to them.[13]
In his sixth question, al-Biruni rejects Aristotle's view on the celestial spheres having circular orbits rather than elliptic orbits. In his seventh question, he rejects Aristotle's notion that the motion of the heavens begins from the right side and from the east, while his eighth question concerns Aristotle's view on the fire element being spherical. The ninth question concerns the movement of heat, and the tenth question concerns the transformation of elements.[14]
The eleventh question concerns the burning of bodies by radiation reflecting off a flask filled with water, and the twelveth concerns the natural tendency of the classical elements in their upward and downward movements. The thirteenth question deals with vision, while the fourteenth concerns habitation on different parts of Earth. His fifteenth question asks how two opposite squares in a square divided into four can be tangential, while the sixteenth question concerns vacuum. His seventeenth question asks "if things expand upon heating and contract upon cooling, why does a flask filled with water break when water freezes in it?" His eighteenth and final question concerns the observable phenomenon of ice floating on water.[15]
After Avicenna responded to the questions, al-Biruni was unsatisfied with some of the answers and wrote back commenting on them, after which Avicenna's student Ahmad ibn 'Ali al-Ma'sumi wrote back on behalf of Avicenna.
Optics
In optics, al-Biruni was one of the first, along with Ibn al-Haytham, to discover that the speed of light was finite. Al-Biruni was also the first to discover that the speed of light is much faster than the speed of sound.[[16]]
Statics
In statics, al-Biruni measured the specific gravities of eighteen gemstones, and discovered that there is a correlation between the specific gravity of an object and the volume of water it displaces.[17] He also introduced the method of checking tests during experiments, measured the weights of various liquids, and recorded the differences in weight between fresh water and salt water, and between hot water and cold water.[M. Rozhanskaya and I. S. Levinova, "Statics", in R. Rashed (1996), ''The Encyclopaedia of the History of Arabic Science'', p. 639, Routledge, London. (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)]
During his experiments, he invented the conical measure,[18] in order to find the ratio between the weight of a substance in air and the weight of water displaced, and to accurately measure the specific weights of the gemstones and their corresponding metals, which are very close to modern measurements.
Theology
Islamic theology
Al-Biruni was a supporter of the Ash'ari school of Islamic theology.[Ziauddin Sardar, Science in Islamic philosophy] He assigned to the Qur'an a separate and autonomous realm of its own and held that:[19]
Comparative religion
He wrote works on both Islamic theology and Indian theology, and wrote on the topic comparative religion, comparing both religions. His comparisons included the following comparison between the Qur'an and the Indian religious scriptures in the "On the Configuration of the Heavens and the Earth According to [Indian] astrologers" chapter of the ''Indica'':[20]
See also
★ Islamic Golden Age
★ Islamic science
★ List of Islamic studies scholars
★ List of Muslim scientists
★ List of Iranian scientists and scholars
★ Abū Alī ibn Sīnā
★ Ibn al-Haytham
★ Shen Kuo
References
1. Al-Biruni (2007). Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved April 22, 2007.
2. David C. Lindberg, ''Science in the Middle Ages'', University of Chicago Press, p. 18:
3. Mr Koïchiro Matsuura. United Nations: Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization, UNESCO.
4. E. S. Kennedy (1970). "Al-Biruni", ''Dictionary of Scientific Biography'', Vol. II, p. 152.
5. J. T. Walbridge (1998). "Explaining Away the Greek Gods in Islam", ''Journal of the History of Ideas'' '59' (3), p. 389-403.
6. Richard Tapper (1995). "Islamic Anthropology" and the "Anthropology of Islam", ''Anthropological Quarterly'' '68' (3), Anthropological Analysis and Islamic Texts, p. 185-193.
7. D. De S. Price (1984). "A History of Calculating Machines", ''IEEE Micro'' '4' (1), p. 22-52.
8. Donald Routledge Hill (1985). "Al-Biruni's mechanical calendar", ''Annals of Science'' '42', p. 139-163.
9. Tuncer Oren (2001). "Advances in Computer and Information Sciences: From Abacus to Holonic Agents", ''Turk J Elec Engin'' '9' (1), p. 63-70 [64].
10. George Saliba (1980), "Al-Biruni", in Joseph Strayer, ''Dictionary of the Middle Ages'', Vol. 2, p. 249. Charles Scribner's Sons, New York.
11. H. Mowlana (2001). "Information in the Arab World", ''Cooperation South Journal'' '1'.
12. James S. Aber (2003). Abu Rayhan al-Biruni, Emporia State University.
13. Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', December 2003.
14. Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Summer 2004.
15. Rafik Berjak and Muzaffar Iqbal, "Ibn Sina--Al-Biruni correspondence", ''Islam & Science'', Winter 2004.
16. George Sarton, ''Introduction to the History of Science'', "The Time of Al-Biruni".
17. Will Durant (1950). ''The Age of Faith'', p. 244. Simon and Shuster, New York. (cf. Khwarizm, Foundation for Science Technology and Civilisation.)
18. Marshall Clagett (1961). ''The Science of Mechanics in the Middle Ages'', p. 64. University of Wisconsin Press.
19. "Qur'an and Science", ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an''.
20. Prof. Ahmad Dallal (2004), "Science and the Qur'an", in Jane McAuliffe, ''Encyclopedia of the Qur'an'', vol. 4, p. 540-558.
Further reading
★
★
External links
★ Extensive biography on Biruni
★ Did Al-Biruni discover evolution by natural selection 800 years before Darwin?
★ "On Stones": Biruni's work on geology, medical properties of gemstones full text version + comments
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