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In the 18th century the philosophies of The Enlightenment began to have a dramatic effect, the landmark works of philosophers such as Immanuel Kant and Jean-Jacques Rousseau influencing a new generation of thinkers. In the late 18th century a movement known as Romanticism sought to combine the formal rationality of the past, with a greater and more immediate emotional and organic sense of the world. Key ideas that sparked this change were evolution, as postulated by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Erasmus Darwin, and Charles Darwin and what might now be called emergent order, such as the free market of Adam Smith. Pressures for egalitarianism, and more rapid change culminated in a period of revolution and turbulence that would see philosophy change as well.

Contents

Brief historical outline

Influences from the late Enlightenment

Philosophical schools and tendencies

German idealism

Utilitarianism

Marxism

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche

Positivism

Pragmatism (Pragmaticism)

British idealism

Further reading

See also

External links

Brief historical outline

With the tumultuous years of 1789-1815, European culture was transformed by revolution, war and disruption. By ending many of the social and cultural props of the previous century, the stage was set for dramatic economic and political change. European philosophy participated in, and drove, many of these changes.

Influences from the late Enlightenment

The last third of the 18th century produced a host of ideas and works which would both systematize previous philosophy, and present a deep challenge to the basis of how philosophy had been systematized. Immanuel Kant is a name that most would mention as being among the most important of influences, as is Jean-Jacques Rousseau. While both of these philosophers were products of the 18th century and its assumptions, they pressed at the boundaries. In trying to explain the nature of the state and government, Rousseau would challenge the basis of government with his declaration that "Man is born free, but is everywhere in chains". Kant, while attempting to preserve axiomic skepticism, was forced to argue that we do not see reality, nor do we speak of it, only how it appears to us.

Philosophical schools and tendencies

This is by no means an exhaustive list of all '19th-century philosophy'.

German idealism

Main articles: German idealism

One of the first philosophers to attempt to grapple with Kant's philosophy was Johann Gottlieb Fichte, whose working out of Kantian metaphysics included incorporation of what would become the major movement in European arts and letters for the next 50 years, Romanticism. In Fichte's ''Wissenschaftslehre'', he argues that the self posits itself and is a self-producing and changing process.
Schelling, Hegel. Bauer, Stirner
Arthur Schopenhauer, rejecting Hegel, called for a return to Kantian idealism.

Utilitarianism

Main articles: Utilitarianism

In early 19th century Britain, Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill promoted the idea that actions are right as they maximize pleasure and minimize pain.

Marxism

Main articles: Marxism

Ludwig Feuerbach. Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels.

Kierkegaard and Nietzsche

Main articles: Kierkegaard and Nietzsche comparisons

Existentialism as a philosophical movement is properly a 20th-century movement, but its major antecedents, Søren Kierkegaard and Friedrich Nietzsche wrote long before the rise of existentialism. In the 1840s, academic philosophy in Europe, following Hegel, was almost completely divorced from the concerns of individual human life, in favour of pursuing abstract metaphysical systems. Kierkegaard sought to reintroduce to philosophy, in the spirit of Socrates: subjectivity, commitment, faith, and passion, all of which are a part of the human condition.
Like Kierkegaard, Nietzsche saw the moral values of 19th-century Europe disintegrating into nihilism (Kierkegaard called it the ''levelling'' process). Nietzsche attempted to undermine traditional moral values by exposing its foundations. To that end, he distinguished between master and slave moralities, and claimed that man must turn from the meekness and humility of Europe's slave-morality.
Both philosophers are precursors to existentialism, among other ideas, for their importance on the "great man" against the age. Kierkegaard wrote of 19th-century Europe, "Each age has its own characteristic depravity. Ours is perhaps not pleasure or indulgence or sensuality, but rather a dissolute pantheistic contempt for the individual man."^[1]

Positivism

Main articles: Positivism

Auguste Comte, the self-professed founder of modern sociology, put forward the view that the rigorous ordering of confirmable observations alone ought to constitute the realm of human knowledge. He had hoped to order the sciences in increasing degrees of complexity from mathematics, astronomy, physics, chemistry, biology, and a new discipline called "sociology", which is the study of the "dynamics and statics of society".^[2]

Pragmatism (Pragmaticism)

Main articles: Pragmatism

The American philosophers C.S. Peirce and William James developed the pragmatist philosophy in the late 19th century.

British idealism

The twilight years of the 19th-century in Britain saw the rise of British idealism, a revival of interest in the works of Kant and Hegel.

Further reading

★ Baird, Forrest E. ''Philosophic Classics: 19th Century Philosophy''. ISBN 0130485500

★ Gardiner, Patrick. {ed.} ''19th-century Philosophy''. ISBN 9780029112205

★ Shand, John. ''Central Works of Philosophy''. Vol. 3. The Nineteenth Century. ISBN 9780773530539

See also

★ List of philosophers born in the nineteenth century

External links

★ Fichte from the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy